Article Summary

The list of articles below was compiled by Marks Nester while researching his article, “An Applied Statistician's Creed,” which we recommend. Marks was a researcher with the Australian Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, but is now retired. We reprint this list with Marks’s permission. We are, of course, indebted to Marks for the use of this list, which undoubtedly took him many hours to compile.

Unlike the list compiled by Bill Thompson, not all of the 268 articles below are critical of null hypothesis significance testing (NHST). In fact, many articles do not tackle NHST directly at all, instead focusing on other statistical and analytic concepts. Nonetheless, Marks’s Creed article — based on the below list — is quite critical of NHST in general. It argues for a refocusing of analysis away from dichotomous use of NHST: “Acceptance of the creed forces a data analyst to focus on the important issues, and it reminds the analyst that there are many assumptions which must be examined to ensure that the analysis is sound and appropriate.”

This list is part of The Research’s larger project to document the many critiques of NHST and to apply those critiques in specific business contexts (ex. A/B web testing).

Note that Marks’s citation style is slightly more formal than that we have used elsewhere on this site. Also note that we are currently in the process of adding direct links to all 268 articles, although this will take some time.

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  2. Altman, D. G. (1985). Discussion of Dr Chatfield's paper. J. R. Statist. Soc. A 148, Part 3 : 242.

  3. Anscombe, F. J. (1956). Discussion on Dr. David's and Dr. Johnson's Paper. J. Roy. Statist. Soc. B 18 : 24-27.

  4. Anscombe, F. J. (1961). Bayesian statistics. American Statistician 15 : 21-24. Reprinted in Statistical Issues, A Reader for the Behavioural Sciences, Ed. R. E. Kirk, 1972, Wadsworth Publishing Company : 379-385.

  5. Anscombe, F. J. (1963). Tests of goodness of fit. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series B, 25 : 81-94.

  6. Arbuthnott, J. (1710). An argument for Divine Providence, taken from the constant regularity observ'd in the births of both sexes. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 23 : 186-190.

  7. Bahadur, R. R. and Robbins, H. (1950). The problem of the greater mean. Annals of Mathematical Statistics 21 : 469-487. 

  8. Bailar III, J. C. (1986). Science, statistics and deception. Annals of Internal Medicine 104 : 259-260.

  9. Bailar III, J. C. (1995). A larger perspective. The American Statistician 49(1) : 10-11.

  10. Bakan, D. (1967). The test of significance in psychological research. From Chapter 1 of On Method, Jossey-Bass, Inc. (San Francisco). Reprinted in The Significance Test Controversy - A Reader, Eds. D. E. Morrison and R. E. Henkel, 1970, Aldine Publishing Company (Butterworth Group).

  11. Baker, R. J. (1980). Multiple comparison tests. Can. J. Plant Sci. 60 : 325-327.

  12. Barndorff-Nielsen, O. (1977). Discussion of D. R. Cox's paper. Scand. J. Statist. 4 : 67-69.

  13. Beaven, E. S. (1935). Discussion on Dr. Neyman's Paper. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Supplement 2 : 159-161.

  14. Berger, J. O. and Sellke, T. (1987a). Testing a point null hypothesis: the irreconcilability of P values and evidence. Journal of the American Statistical Association 82(397) : 112-122.

  15. Berger, J. O. and Sellke, T. (1987b). Rejoinder. Journal of the American Statistical Association 82(397) : 135-139.

  16. Berger, J. O. and Wolpert, R. L. (1988). The Likelihood Principle. Second edition. Lecture Notes-Monograph Series, Volume 6, Institute of Mathematical Statistics (Hayward, California).

  17. Berkson, J. (1938). Some difficulties of interpretation encountered in the application of the chi-square test. J. Amer. Statist. Ass. 33 : 526-536. 

  18. Berkson, J. (1941). Comments on Dr. Madow's "Note on tests of departure from normality" with some remarks concerning tests of significance. Journal of the American Statistical Association 36 (216) : 539-541. 

  19. Berkson, J. (1942). Tests of significance considered as evidence. Journal of the American Statistical Association 37(219) : 325-335.

  20. Binder, A. (1959). Considerations of the place of assumptions in correlational analysis. Reprinted in Statistical Issues, A Reader for the Behavioural Sciences, Ed. R. E. Kirk, 1972, Wadsworth Publishing Company : 164-171.

  21. Binder, A. (1963). Further considerations on testing the null hypothesis and the strategy and tactics of investigating theoretical models. Psychological Review 70 : 107-115. Reprinted in Statistical Issues, A Reader for the Behavioural Sciences, Ed. R. E. Kirk, 1972, Wadsworth Publishing Company : 118-126.

  22. Birnbaum, A. (1962). Another view on the foundations of statistics. American Statistician 16 : 17-21. Reprinted in Statistical Issues, A Reader for the Behavioural Sciences, Ed. R. E. Kirk, 1972, Wadsworth Publishing Company : 363-370.

  23. Boardman, T. J. (1994). The statistician who changed the world: W. Edwards Deming, 1900-1993. The American Statistician 48(3) : 179-187.

  24. Bolles, R. C. (1962). The difference between statistical hypotheses and scientific hypotheses. Psychological Reports 11 : 639-645.

  25. Bolles, R. and Messick, S. (1958). Statistical utility in experimental inference. Psychological Reports 4 : 223-227.

  26. Boring, E. G. (1919). Mathematical vs. scientific significance. Psychological Bulletin 16(10) : 335-338.

  27. Box, G. E. P. (1976). Science and statistics. J. Amer. Statist. Ass. 71 : 791-799.

  28. Box, G. E. P. (1983). An apology for ecumenism in statistics. In Scientific Inference, Data Analysis, and Robustness, G. E. P. Box, T. Leonard and C. F. Wu (eds.), Academic Press, Inc. : 51-84.

  29. Box, G. (1990). Commentary. Technometrics 32(3) : 251-252.

  30. Box, J. F. (1980). R. A. Fisher and the Design of Experiments. The American Statistician 34(1) : 1-7. 

  31. Braithwaite, R. B. (1953). Scientific Explanation. A Study of the Function of Theory, Probability and Law in Science. Cambridge University Press.

  32. Brewer, J. K. (1985). Behavioral statistics textbooks: Source of myths and misconceptions? Journal of Educational Statistics 10 : 252-268.

  33. Bross, I. D. (1982). Simplicity and credibility: A counterstrategy. Statistics & Probability Letters 1 : 79-83.

  34. Bryan-Jones, J. and Finney, D. J. (1983). On an error in "Instructions to Authors". HortScience 18(3) : 279-282.

  35. Buchanan-Wollaston, H. J. (1935). The philosophic basis of statistical analysis. Journal of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea 10 : 249-263.

  36. Buchanan-Wollaston, H. J. (1936). The philosophic basis of statistical analysis. Journal of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea 11 : 7-26. 

  37. Camilleri, S. F. (1962). Theory, probability, and induction in social research. American Sociological Review 27 : 170-178. Reprinted in The Significance Test Controversy - A Reader, Eds. D. E. Morrison and R. E. Henkel, 1970, Aldine Publishing Company (Butterworth Group). 

  38. Camp, B. H. (1938). Further interpretations of the chi-square test. J. Amer. Statist. Ass. 33 : 537-542.

  39. Campbell, D. T. (1972). Factors relevant to the validity of experiments in social settings. In ??? R. E. Kirk (ed.), Statistical Issues A Reader for the Behavioral Sciences, Wadsworth Publishing Company : 186-199. Reprinted from Psychological Bulletin (1957), 54 : 297-312.

  40. Carmer, S. G. (1976). Optimal significance levels for application of the least significant difference in crop performance trials. Crop Science 16 : 95-99.

  41. Carver, R. P. (1978). The case against statistical significance testing. Harvard Educational Review 48 : 378-399.

  42. Casella, G. and Berger, R. L. (1987a). Reconciling Bayesian and frequentist evidence in the one-sided testing problem. Journal of the American Statistical Association 82(397) : 106-111.

  43. Casella, G. and Berger, R. L. (1987b). Rejoinder. Journal of the American Statistical Association 82(397) : 133-135.

  44. Chatfield, C. (1985). The initial examination of data (with discussion). J. R. Statist. Soc. A 148, Part 3 : 214-253.

  45. Chatfield, C. (1989). Comments on the paper by McPherson. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A, 152 : 234-238.

  46. Chernoff, H. (1986). Comment. The American Statistician 40(1) : 5-6.

  47. Chew, V. (1976a). Comparing treatment means: a compendium. HortScience 11(4) : 348-357.

  48. Chew, V. (1976b). Uses and abuses of Duncan's multiple range test.  Proc. Florida State Hort. Soc. 89 : 251-253.

  49. Chew, V. (1977). Statistical hypothesis testing: an academic exercise in futility. Proc. Florida State Hort. Soc. 90 : 214-215.

  50. Chew, V. (1980). Testing differences among means: correct interpretation and some alternatives. HortScience 15(4) : 467-470.

  51. Clark, C. A. (1963). Hypothesis testing in relation to statistical methodology. Review of Educational Research 33 : 455-473.

  52. Cochran, W. G. and Cox, G. M. (1957). Experimental Designs. 2nd edn. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

  53. Cohen, J. (1990). Things I have learned (so far). American  Psychologist 45 : 1304-1312.

  54. Cohen, J. (1994). The earth is round (p < .05). American  Psychologist 49 : 997-1003.

  55. Connor, E. F. and Simberloff, D. (1986). Competition, scientific method, and null models in ecology. American Scientist 74 : 155-162.

  56. Cormack, R. M. (1985). Discussion of Dr Chatfield's paper. J. R. Statist. Soc. A 148, Part 3 : 231-233.

  57. Cox, D. R. (1958). Some problems connected with statistical inference. Annals of Mathematical Statistics 29 : 357-372.

  58. Cox, D. R. (1977). The role of significance tests. (With discussion). Scand. J. Statist. 4 : 49-70.

  59. Cox, D. R. (1982). Statistical significance tests. Br. J. clin. Pharmac. 14 : 325-331.

  60. Cox, D. R. and Snell, E. J. (1981). Applied Statistics Principles and Examples. Chapman and Hall.

  61. Cox, D. R. and Wermuth, N. (1994). Tests of linearity, multivariate normality and the adequacy of linear scores. Applied Statistics 43(2) : 347-355.

  62. Cronbach, L. J. (1975). Beyond the two disciplines of scientific psychology. American Psychologist 30 : 116-127.

  63. Darlington, R. B. (1968). Multiple regression in psychological research and practice. Psychological Bulletin 69 : 161-182.

  64. Dawkins, H. C. (1981). The misuse of t-tests, LSD and multiple-range tests. British Ecological Society Bulletin 12 : 112-115.

  65. Derrick, T. (1976). The criticism of inferential statistics. Educational Research 19(1) : 35-40. 

  66. Dickey, J. M. (1987). Comment. Journal of the American Statistical Association 82(397) : 129-130.

  67. Dooling, D. J. and Danks, J. H. (1975). Going beyond tests of significance: Is psychology ready? Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 5(1) : 15-17.

  68. Dudycha, A. L. and Dudycha, L. W. (1972). Behavioural statistics: an historical perspective. In Statistical Issues, A Reader for the Behavioural Sciences, Ed. R. E. Kirk, 1972, Wadsworth Publishing Company : 2-25.

  69. Dyke, G. (1997). How to avoid bad statistics. Field Crops Research 51 : 165-187.

  70. Edgeworth, F. Y. (1884). IV.­The philosophy of chance. Mind 9 : 223-235. 

  71. Edgington, E. S. (1966). Statistical inference and nonrandom samples. Psychological Bulletin 66 : 485-487. Reprinted in Statistical Issues, A Reader for the Behavioural Sciences, Ed. R. E. Kirk, 1972, Wadsworth Publishing Company : 146-149.

  72. Edwards, W. (1965). Tactical note on the relation between scientific and statistical hypotheses. Psychological Bulletin 63 : 400-402. Reprinted in Statistical Issues, A Reader for the Behavioural Sciences, Ed. R. E. Kirk, 1972, Wadsworth Publishing Company : 127-130.

  73. Edwards, W., Lindman, H. and Savage, L. J. (1963). Bayesian statistical inference for psychological research. Psychological Review 70 : 193-242.

  74. Favre, A., Guitton, H., Guitton, J., Lichnerowicz, A. and Wolff, E. (1995). Chaos and Determinism. Johns Hopkins University Press.

  75. Finney, D. J. (1988). Was this in your statistics textbook? III. Design and analysis. Expl Agric. 24 : 421-432.

  76. Finney, D. J. (1989a). Was this in your statistics textbook? VI. Regression and covariance. Expl Agric. 25 : 291-311.

  77. Finney, D. J. (1989b). Is the statistician still necessary? Biom. Praxim. 29 : 135-146.

  78. Finney, D. J. (1992). Guest editorial: code for presentation of statistical analyses. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 337 : 381-382.

  79. Finney, D. J. (1995a). A necessity for living or a source of nonsense? Trans IChemE 73 B Supplement : S15-17.

  80. Finney, D. J. (1995b). Statistical science and effective scientific communication. Journal of Applied Statistics 22 : 293-308.

  81. Finney, D. J. (1995c). Letter to the editor. Thoughts suggested by a recent paper: Questions on non-parametric analysis of quantitative data. Journal of Toxicological Sciences 20 : 165-170.

  82. Finney, D. J. (1996). Make the numbers tell their story. Norwegian Journal of Agricultural Sciences Supplement 22 : 9-18.

  83. Fisher, R. A. (1935a). The Design of Experiments. Oliver and Boyd (Edinburgh). 

  84. Fisher, R. A. and MacKenzie, W. A. (1923). Studies in crop variation. II. The manurial response of different potato varieties. Journal of Agricultural Science 13 : 311-320.

  85. Fisher et al. (1935b). Discussion on Dr. Neyman's Paper. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Supplement 2 : 154-180.

  86. Fisher, R. A. (1943). Note on Dr. Berkson's criticism of tests of significance. J. Amer. Statist. Ass. 38 : 103-104.

  87. Freiman, J. A., Chalmers, T. C., Smith Jr., H. and Kuebler, R. R. (1978). The importance of beta, the type II error and sample size in the design and interpretation of the randomized control trial. New England Journal of Medecine 299(13) : 690-694.

  88. Gaito, J. (1958). The Bolles-Messick coefficient of utility. Psychological Reports 4 : 595-598.

  89. Galton, F.. (1888). On head growth in students at the University of Cambridge. Journal of the Anthropological Institute 18 : 155-157.

  90. Gardner, M. J. and Altman, D. G. (1986). Confidence intervals rather than P values: estimation rather than hypothesis testing. British Medical Journal 292 : 746-750.

  91. Garsd, A. (1984). Spurious correlation in ecological modelling. Ecological Modelling 23 : 191-201.

  92. Gauch Jr., H. G. (1988). Model selection and validation for yield trials with interaction. Biometrics 44 : 705-715.

  93. Geary, D. N., Huntington, E. and Gilbert, R. J. (1992). Analysis of multivariate data from four clinical trials. J. R. Statist. Soc. A 155(1) : 77-79. (incomplete)

  94. Geary, R. C. (1947). Testing for normality. Biometrika 34 : 209-242.

  95. Gigerenzer, G. (1993). The superego, the ego, and the id in statistical reasoning. In G. Keren and C. Lewis (eds.), A Handbook for Data Analysis in the Behavioural Sciences: Methodological Issues, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum : 311-339.

  96. Gigerenzer, G., Swijtink, Z., Porter, T., Daston, L., Beatty, J. and Krüger, L. (1989). The Empire of Chance. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England.

  97. Gold, D. (1958). Comment on "A critique of tests of significane". American Sociological Review 23 : 85-86.

  98. Gold, D. (1969). Statistical tests and substantive significance. The American Sociologist 4 : 42-46.

  99. Good, I. J. (1978). Fallacies, Statistical. In International Encyclopedia of Statistics, W. H. Kruskal and J. M. Tanur (eds.), Free Press (New York) : 337-349.

  100. Good, I. J. (1983). Good Thinking. The Foundations of Probability and Its Applications. University of Minnesota Press (Minneapolis).

  101. Good, I. J. (1987). Comment. Journal of the American Statistical Association 82(397) : 125-128.

  102. Goodman, S. N. and Royall, R. (1988). Evidence and scientific research. American Journal of Public Health 78(12) : 1568-1574.

  103. Grant, D. A. (1962). Testing the null hypothesis and the strategy and tactics of investigating theoretical models. Psychological Review 69 : 54-61.

  104. Graybill, F. A. (1976). Theory and Application of the Linear Model. Duxbury Press (Massachusetts).

  105. Major Greenwood (1932). What is wrong with the medical curriculum? Lancet 1 : 1269-1270.

  106. Gridgeman, N. T. (1959). The lady tasting tea, and allied topics. J. Amer. Statist. Ass. 54 : 776-783.

  107. Guttman, L. (1977). What is not what in statistics. The Statistician 26 : 81-107.

  108. Guttman, L. (1984). Secure prediction: The case of linear regression. Draft kindly supplied by ?????.

  109. Guttman, L. (1985). The illogic of statistical inference for cumulative science. Applied Stochastic Models and Data Analysis 1 : 3-10.

  110. Hahn, G. J. (1990). Commentary. Technometrics 32(3) : 257-258.

  111. Harvey, P. H., Colwell, R. K., Silvertown, J. W. and May, R. M. (1983). Null models in ecology. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 14 : 189-211.

  112. Hays, W. L. (1973). Statistics for the Social Sciences. Second edition. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

  113. Healy, M. J. R. (1978). Is statistics a science? J. R. Statist. Soc. A 141, Part 3 : 385-393.

  114. Healy, M. J. R. (1989). Comments on the paper by McPherson. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A, 152 : 232-234.

  115. Hinkley, D. V. (1987). Comment. Journal of the American Statistical Association 82(397) : 128-129.

  116. Hodges Jr., J. L. and Lehmann, E. L. (1954). Testing the approximate validity of statistical hypotheses. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series B, 16 : 261-268.

  117. Hogben, L. (1957a). The contemporary crisis or the uncertainties of uncertain inference. Statistical Theory, W. W. Norton & Co., Inc. Reprinted in The Significance Test Controversy - A Reader, Eds. D. E. Morrison and R. E. Henkel, 1970, Aldine Publishing Company (Butterworth Group).

  118. Hogben, L. (1957b). Statistical prudence and statistical inference. Statistical Theory, W. W. Norton & Co., Inc. Reprinted in The Significance Test Controversy - A Reader, Eds. D. E. Morrison and R. E. Henkel, 1970, Aldine Publishing Company (Butterworth Group).

  119. Hotelling, H. (1951). The impact of R. A. Fisher on statistics. Journal of the American Statistical association 46 : 35-46.

  120. Hunter, J. S. (1990). Commentary. Technometrics 32(3) : 261.

  121. Inman, H. F. (1994). Karl Pearson and R. A. Fisher on statistical tests: A 1935 exchange from Nature. The American Statistician 48(1) : 2-11.

  122. Johnson, D. H. Significance testing: statistics as pseudoscience. Draft paper prepared for the Journal of Wildlife Management.

  123. Johnson, S. B. and Berger, R. D. (1982). On the status of statistics in PHYTOPATHOLOGY. Phytopathology 72(8) : 1014-1015.

  124. Johnstone, D. J. (1986). Tests of significance in theory and practice. (With discussion). The Statistician 35 : 491-504.

  125. Jones, D. (1984). Use, misuse, and role of multiple-comparison procedures in ecological and agricultural entomology. Environmental Entomology 13(3) : 635-649.

  126. Jones, D. and Matloff, N. (1986). Statistical hypothesis testing in biology: a contradiction in terms. Journal of Economic Entomology 79(5) : 1156-1160.

  127. Katzer, J. and Sodt, J. (1973). An analysis of the use of statistical testing in communication research. Journal of Communication 23 : 251-265.

  128. Kempthorne, O. (1966). Some aspects of experimental inference. Journal of the American Statistical Association 61(313) : 11-34.

  129. Kempthorne, O. (1976). Of what use are tests of significance and tests of hypotheses. Commun. Statist. - Theor. Meth A5 (8) : 763-777.

  130. Kempthorne, O. (1989). The fate worse than death and other curiosities and stupidities. The American Statistician 43(3) : 133-134.

  131. Kendall, M. G. (1942). On the future of statistics. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Part II, 105 : 69-80.

  132. Kendall, M. G. (1959). Hiawatha designs an experiment. American Statistician 13 : 23-24. Reprinted in Statistical Issues, A Reader for the Behavioural Sciences, Ed. R. E. Kirk, 1972, Wadsworth Publishing Company : 175-176.

  133. Kiefer, J. (1977). The foundations of statistics - are there any? Synthese 36 : 161-176.

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